The bathyscaphe Trieste is an early deep-diving submarine designed by Auguste Piccard from Switzerland and built in Italy in the 1950's (the character of Captain Picard from Star Trek: The Next Generation is named after him). It spent some time puttering around the Mediterranean before being bought by the US Navy for $250,000.
It has a two-chambered design. The first chamber is the pressure chamber, where the two crew members sit. It is designed to withstand a pressure of 1.25 tons per square inch, which is actually a higher pressure that would be found in the deepest part of the oceans, but it never hurts to over-engineer this kind of thing. Oxygen was recycled through a rebreather system that used canisters of lime to scrub the carbon dioxide out of the used air. Because there was no way to build a sphere big enough for two people and strong enough to withstand the pressure and yet still be neutrally buoyant, the second chamber was a float chamber filled with gasoline. Gasoline is lighter than water and, unlike air, incompressible even at high pressure. The pressure sphere had one window: a several-inch thick cone of Plexiglas.
For ballast, the Trieste carried nine tons of iron shot, held in place in hoppers by electromagnets. If the power failed, the magnets would automatically release the shot and the vessel would float to the surface on its own. A pretty neat design element, and one I wouldn't have thought of until I was seven miles down without power.
On October 5, 1959, the Trieste left for Guam aboard a freighter to take part in Project Nekton: deep dives in the Mariana Trench, the deepest part of the ocean on Earth. 49 years ago today, January 23, 1960, the Trieste touched down at a depth of 35,761 feet (almost seven miles!) on the floor of the Challenger Deep in the southern part of the Mariana Trench. Its crew was Jacques Piccard (Auguste's son) and Lieutenant Dan Walsh, US Navy. It was the first time any craft, manned or robotic, had made it that deep. They spent only 20 minutes on the bottom in near-freezing temperatures, but that was enough time to record soles and flukes, proving that vertebrate animals could survive at that depth, albeit in a much flatter configuration.
The Trieste never went back to the Challenger Deep and was gradually phased out by smaller, more nimble craft like the Alvin, which uses some kind of super foam to provide both buoyancy and structural support. But the Alvin can only go down to 15,000 feet. The only other craft to go to the bottom of the Challenger Deep was the Japanese unmanned submersible Kaiko in 1995. With the loss of that vessel at sea in 2003 and the Trieste in pieces on display in the Naval Historical Center in Washington, DC, no vessel on Earth today is capable of braving such depths.
Friday, January 23, 2009
Thursday, January 22, 2009
History Spotlight, 1/22
On this day in 1952, the de Havilland Comet, the world's first jet airliner entered service for the British Overseas Airways Corporation. The version produced for the military is still in service and is expected to stay in service until 2020 - nearly 70 years.
Its early flights were not without issues, however. On January 10, 1954, while taking off from Rome's Ciampino Airport, a Comet broke up and crashed into the sea. All 35 aboard died. As the cause was not apparent, the fleet was grounded while a committee was formed to search. The Royal Navy had found, and was recovering, the craft when the committed delivered its verdict: an onboard fire. Several modifications were made to Comets and they were placed back in service.
On April 8, 1954, a South African Airways Comet en route from London to Johannesburg crashed near Naples. Again, all Comets were grounded and a new committee was formed. Winston Churchill himself ordered the Royal Navy with raising the wreck and assisting the committee.
An identical craft was subject to repeated pressurization and depressurization, over 3,000 in all. It finally failed from metal fatigue near a front window. The committed found that the square windows allowed areas of high stress in the corners (over 40,000 psi). The Comet's windows were redesigned to be round and the skin was thickened and the problem never resurfaced. And that's why jet airliners have rounded windows. You can see the square windows in this picture:
Its early flights were not without issues, however. On January 10, 1954, while taking off from Rome's Ciampino Airport, a Comet broke up and crashed into the sea. All 35 aboard died. As the cause was not apparent, the fleet was grounded while a committee was formed to search. The Royal Navy had found, and was recovering, the craft when the committed delivered its verdict: an onboard fire. Several modifications were made to Comets and they were placed back in service.
On April 8, 1954, a South African Airways Comet en route from London to Johannesburg crashed near Naples. Again, all Comets were grounded and a new committee was formed. Winston Churchill himself ordered the Royal Navy with raising the wreck and assisting the committee.
An identical craft was subject to repeated pressurization and depressurization, over 3,000 in all. It finally failed from metal fatigue near a front window. The committed found that the square windows allowed areas of high stress in the corners (over 40,000 psi). The Comet's windows were redesigned to be round and the skin was thickened and the problem never resurfaced. And that's why jet airliners have rounded windows. You can see the square windows in this picture:
Wednesday, January 21, 2009
History Spotlight, 1/21
On this day in 1921, Vladimir Illyich Lenin, patriarch of the Soviet Union, suffers a massive stroke and dies. This was only the beginning for his body.
Within two days of his death, the Soviet government contacted the noted pathologist Professor Alexei Abrikosov. They gave him the task of, at first, just preserving Lenin until the burial. As thousands and thousands of people flocked to Moscow to see the body lying in state, the temporary mausoleum began to look permanent. By 1929(so much for a few days!) the decision was made to just go for broke and keep him around permanently. I always figured that Stalin liked keeping his rival on display like that. A new mausoleum was built, Lenin was given a sparkling fresh coat of shellac and there's he's been since then.
Well, mostly. In October 1941, Lenin's corpse was evacuated to Tyumen, in Siberia over fears that the Nazis would capture Moscow. Lenin was returned to his spot after the war. From 1953-1961, he had Stalin as a roommate. Stalin would still be there too, if it weren't for the Kruschev-era de-Stalinization. If my theory up above is true, isn't a creepy Twilight Zone twist? Stalin puts Lenin in the mausoleum as some kind of ghoulish vengeance and then winds up there himself!
The method used to preserve the body permanently is right out of Re-Animator and is suprisingly simple. The exact process has only recently come to light since the demise of the Soviet Union. In the first stage, back in 1929, Lenin was treated with a chemical that was known as "balsam" but which turns out to be glycerin and potassium nitrate. Every 18 months, Lenin is given a two-month long chemical bath consisting of glycerin, potassium acetate, distilled water, and quinine (for its disinfectant properties). The sarcophagus is kept at 61 degrees and at a humidity of 80-90%. As might be guessed, the main issue with Lenin is drying out.
Lenin also presents a variety of problems on a day-to-day basis. First, are dark spots. These are easily treated with hydrogen peroxide to bring out color. Second, are wrinkly patches. A weak mixture of acetic acid and distilled water smooths them right out. Finally are pesky damp spots, which are a sign of bacterial growth and treated with a disinfectant.
Many people have questioned the reality of Lenin's corpse. Its waxy appearance plus the fact that only the hands and head show leads them to believe that at least some of the corpse has been replaced with an artificial substitute. The family that still maintains Lenin (Alexei Abrikosov's descendants) swears that the corpse is real.
There have been a couple of attempts, since the fall of the USSR, to give Lenin a decent burial. Boris Yeltsin tried twice, but both times was confronted with an unrelated crisis and lacked the political capital to get it done. So, there Lenin rests. Viewing hours are every day except Monday and Friday from 10 am to 1 pm. There is no smoking, talking or photography in the mausoleum.
Within two days of his death, the Soviet government contacted the noted pathologist Professor Alexei Abrikosov. They gave him the task of, at first, just preserving Lenin until the burial. As thousands and thousands of people flocked to Moscow to see the body lying in state, the temporary mausoleum began to look permanent. By 1929(so much for a few days!) the decision was made to just go for broke and keep him around permanently. I always figured that Stalin liked keeping his rival on display like that. A new mausoleum was built, Lenin was given a sparkling fresh coat of shellac and there's he's been since then.
Well, mostly. In October 1941, Lenin's corpse was evacuated to Tyumen, in Siberia over fears that the Nazis would capture Moscow. Lenin was returned to his spot after the war. From 1953-1961, he had Stalin as a roommate. Stalin would still be there too, if it weren't for the Kruschev-era de-Stalinization. If my theory up above is true, isn't a creepy Twilight Zone twist? Stalin puts Lenin in the mausoleum as some kind of ghoulish vengeance and then winds up there himself!
The method used to preserve the body permanently is right out of Re-Animator and is suprisingly simple. The exact process has only recently come to light since the demise of the Soviet Union. In the first stage, back in 1929, Lenin was treated with a chemical that was known as "balsam" but which turns out to be glycerin and potassium nitrate. Every 18 months, Lenin is given a two-month long chemical bath consisting of glycerin, potassium acetate, distilled water, and quinine (for its disinfectant properties). The sarcophagus is kept at 61 degrees and at a humidity of 80-90%. As might be guessed, the main issue with Lenin is drying out.
Lenin also presents a variety of problems on a day-to-day basis. First, are dark spots. These are easily treated with hydrogen peroxide to bring out color. Second, are wrinkly patches. A weak mixture of acetic acid and distilled water smooths them right out. Finally are pesky damp spots, which are a sign of bacterial growth and treated with a disinfectant.
Many people have questioned the reality of Lenin's corpse. Its waxy appearance plus the fact that only the hands and head show leads them to believe that at least some of the corpse has been replaced with an artificial substitute. The family that still maintains Lenin (Alexei Abrikosov's descendants) swears that the corpse is real.
There have been a couple of attempts, since the fall of the USSR, to give Lenin a decent burial. Boris Yeltsin tried twice, but both times was confronted with an unrelated crisis and lacked the political capital to get it done. So, there Lenin rests. Viewing hours are every day except Monday and Friday from 10 am to 1 pm. There is no smoking, talking or photography in the mausoleum.
Tuesday, January 20, 2009
History Spotlight, 1/20
On this day in 1801, President John Adams appointed John Marshall as the fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Marshall would serve for over 30 years and is responsible for many of the ways the Constitution is interpreted and the Supreme Court operates even today.
For example, one of the first things Marshall changed was in the way the Court hands down decisions. Prior to Marshall, each Justice would write his own opinion and hand it down, similar to the way things work in Britain or Australia. Marshall changed it so that the Court would hand down a single opinion. Since Marshall was the Chief Justice, he was the one who got to write this opinion and got to influence the Court's direction.
Marshall also created the doctrine judicial review, which says that the Supreme Court can rule on (and perhaps strike down) laws that it feels aren't Constitutional. Most people today don't realize that power isn't in the Constitution somewhere (in the back, maybe) but it was Marshall who created it.
In the election of 1800, Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic-Republicans defeated John Adams and the Federalists. Jefferson wasn't sworn in until March 4, 1801 and between the election and the inauguration, Adams and the Federalists still controlled Congress. They passed the Judiciary Act of 1801, which created ten new federal level courts for Adams to fill with Federalists. The night before the inauguration Adams went through a flurry of appointments. A man named William Marbury was the recipient of one of these "Midnight Judge" appointments but he hadn't been delivered his commission by the time Jefferson was sworn in the next day. It was assumed that the commissions would be delivered by the incoming Sectretary of State, James Madison. Almost as soon as he was sworn in, Jefferson ordered the remaining undelivered commissions to be retracted. Without the official commissions the judges and justices of the peace were unable to start their jobs and, as far as Jefferson was concerned, it was problem solved.
Congress, now controlled by the Democratic-Republicans moved quickly to pass the Judiciary Act of 1802, which voided the Judiciary Act of 1801. The also canceled the impending Supreme Court term and postponed the next one for almost a year in order to delay a ruling on the constitutionality for all of these judiciary acts for as long as possible to allow them to become entrenched.
The upshot of the case was that Marbury got his commission, but more importantly, the Court ruled that the Judiciary Act of 1802 was unconstitutional and that the Supreme Court had the right to review laws that Congress passed.
For example, one of the first things Marshall changed was in the way the Court hands down decisions. Prior to Marshall, each Justice would write his own opinion and hand it down, similar to the way things work in Britain or Australia. Marshall changed it so that the Court would hand down a single opinion. Since Marshall was the Chief Justice, he was the one who got to write this opinion and got to influence the Court's direction.
Marshall also created the doctrine judicial review, which says that the Supreme Court can rule on (and perhaps strike down) laws that it feels aren't Constitutional. Most people today don't realize that power isn't in the Constitution somewhere (in the back, maybe) but it was Marshall who created it.
In the election of 1800, Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic-Republicans defeated John Adams and the Federalists. Jefferson wasn't sworn in until March 4, 1801 and between the election and the inauguration, Adams and the Federalists still controlled Congress. They passed the Judiciary Act of 1801, which created ten new federal level courts for Adams to fill with Federalists. The night before the inauguration Adams went through a flurry of appointments. A man named William Marbury was the recipient of one of these "Midnight Judge" appointments but he hadn't been delivered his commission by the time Jefferson was sworn in the next day. It was assumed that the commissions would be delivered by the incoming Sectretary of State, James Madison. Almost as soon as he was sworn in, Jefferson ordered the remaining undelivered commissions to be retracted. Without the official commissions the judges and justices of the peace were unable to start their jobs and, as far as Jefferson was concerned, it was problem solved.
Congress, now controlled by the Democratic-Republicans moved quickly to pass the Judiciary Act of 1802, which voided the Judiciary Act of 1801. The also canceled the impending Supreme Court term and postponed the next one for almost a year in order to delay a ruling on the constitutionality for all of these judiciary acts for as long as possible to allow them to become entrenched.
The upshot of the case was that Marbury got his commission, but more importantly, the Court ruled that the Judiciary Act of 1802 was unconstitutional and that the Supreme Court had the right to review laws that Congress passed.
Monday, January 19, 2009
History Spotlight, 1/19
It was on this day in 1917 that German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmerman sent the infamous Zimmerman Telegram, offering Mexico much of the land (Texas, Arizona and New Mexico) they lost during the Mexican-American War and financial aid for an alliance against the US, who was not, at that point, at war.
Mexican President Venustuiano Carranza declined for several reasons. First, it would mean war with the US and they didn't want that. Second, Germany may have had all the money in the world, but the only place to buy arms in the Western hemisphere was from the US. On top of that, the Royal Navy still ruled the waves so it would be impossible for Germany to supply all the arms that were required. Third, Mexico wasn't looking forward to the conquest and pacification of a large population of English-speaking, fervently patriotic Texans. Finally, The "ABC Powers" (Argentina, Brazil and Chile) had mediated between Mexico and the US over the Tampico Affair and had averted a war between the two powers. Mexico picking a fight with the US would annoy the three most powerful countries in South America. So, president Carranza said, "Thanks, but no thanks," and that might have been the end of it.
It would have been the end of the telegram if the British hadn't intercepted it. This was a golden chance to get the US into the war on the Allied side. German trans-oceanic cables had been cut and the Americans were allowing them to use theirs under diplomatic cover as a friendly gesture. Anti-German feeling in the US was already running hot due to the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany and the British felt that it would only take one little push to get the job done.
There were just a couple of problems. First, they would have to get the telegram to the Americans without letting on that they were listening into messages sent under American diplomatic cover. Second, they needed to have a cover story for how they got the message without revealing that they had deciphered the German codes.
For the first problem, they figured that the message would have been relayed from the German Embassy in Washington to Mexico City via commercial telegraph lines so they just bribed an employee of the telegraph company in Mexico for a copy of the encrypted message.
For the second problem, they circulated they story that they had stolen the decrypted telegram in Mexico City. Germany was unwilling to consider the possibility that their code had been broken launched a hunt for a traitor that didn't exist.
On February 18, 1917, the British showed the telegram and corroborating evidence to the American government. Reaction was, at first, incredulous and the outraged as the telegram was independently verified. At first, the German and Mexican governments tried to make it seem as if the telegram was a British forgery, but the evidence continued to mount up until Arthur Zimmerman himself was forced admit to having sent the telegram.
This, coupled with the sinking of the Lusitania a few years earlier and the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare on February 1, 1917 only served to further inflame American passions against Germany. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany and on April 6, they complied.
Mexican President Venustuiano Carranza declined for several reasons. First, it would mean war with the US and they didn't want that. Second, Germany may have had all the money in the world, but the only place to buy arms in the Western hemisphere was from the US. On top of that, the Royal Navy still ruled the waves so it would be impossible for Germany to supply all the arms that were required. Third, Mexico wasn't looking forward to the conquest and pacification of a large population of English-speaking, fervently patriotic Texans. Finally, The "ABC Powers" (Argentina, Brazil and Chile) had mediated between Mexico and the US over the Tampico Affair and had averted a war between the two powers. Mexico picking a fight with the US would annoy the three most powerful countries in South America. So, president Carranza said, "Thanks, but no thanks," and that might have been the end of it.
It would have been the end of the telegram if the British hadn't intercepted it. This was a golden chance to get the US into the war on the Allied side. German trans-oceanic cables had been cut and the Americans were allowing them to use theirs under diplomatic cover as a friendly gesture. Anti-German feeling in the US was already running hot due to the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany and the British felt that it would only take one little push to get the job done.
There were just a couple of problems. First, they would have to get the telegram to the Americans without letting on that they were listening into messages sent under American diplomatic cover. Second, they needed to have a cover story for how they got the message without revealing that they had deciphered the German codes.
For the first problem, they figured that the message would have been relayed from the German Embassy in Washington to Mexico City via commercial telegraph lines so they just bribed an employee of the telegraph company in Mexico for a copy of the encrypted message.
For the second problem, they circulated they story that they had stolen the decrypted telegram in Mexico City. Germany was unwilling to consider the possibility that their code had been broken launched a hunt for a traitor that didn't exist.
On February 18, 1917, the British showed the telegram and corroborating evidence to the American government. Reaction was, at first, incredulous and the outraged as the telegram was independently verified. At first, the German and Mexican governments tried to make it seem as if the telegram was a British forgery, but the evidence continued to mount up until Arthur Zimmerman himself was forced admit to having sent the telegram.
This, coupled with the sinking of the Lusitania a few years earlier and the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare on February 1, 1917 only served to further inflame American passions against Germany. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany and on April 6, they complied.
Sunday, January 18, 2009
History Spotlight, 1/18
It was on this day in 1535 that Francisco Pizarro, Spanish conquistador, founded the city of Lima, Peru.
Pizarro had led a couple of expeditions down the West coast of South American with differing levels of success. The first one was a failure: he only made it to Columbia (from Panama) and lost a ton of men to disease, hunger and hostile natives. The names given to ports along the way speak of the hard times: Porto del Hambre (Port of Hunger) and Porto Quemado (Burned Port).
The governor of Panama, Pedro Arias Davila, refused to authorize a second expedition, seeing Pizarro as a losing horse. But it was at that point that Davila decided to go exploring northwards in Honduras. His successor, Pedro de los Rios, gave Pizarro his support. It wasn't exactly full-throated support, but it was enough for Pizarro to get going.
Pizarro left Panama with a fleet of 160 ships headed south. They got to the San Juan River (at the modern boundary of Columbia and Bolivia) and split into three groups. Pizarro's group would head upriver to explore the interior. His second-in-command, Diego de Alamgro would head back to Panama for supplies and reinforcements. The chief pilot, Bartolomo Ruiz headed south to explore the coastline.
Ruiz had the best luck, at least from his point of view. He encountered, and subsequently robbed, a raft full of natives from the city of Tumbes. He relieved them of the burden of many yards of cloth, fine ceramics and, most especially, lots of gold and silver. Ruiz's eyes lit up at that and he turned around to meet up with Pizarro.
As it turns out, Pizarro had been having and extremely difficult time in the interior and was only too happy to break off that aspect of the expedition. At that point Alamgro got back with the supplies and troops.
Meanwhile, Governor de los Rios has been hearing all about Pizarro's disastrous first expedition and rumors about what was going on on the second. He decides to not only not authorize a third expedition, but to recall the second. He sent two ships to go get Pizarro.
This only stiffened Pizarros resolve, leading to an agry confrontation where he drew a line in the sand and gave his men the option of going home or staying with him, saying, "There lies Peru with its riches; Here, Panama and its poverty. Choose, each man, what best becomes a brave Castilian" Only thirteen men out of hundreds stayed with him. These were to become known as "The Famous Thirteen."
Pizarro sent Ruiz and Almagro back for provisions and to try and change de los Rios's mind, while Pizarro built a camp to wait it out. After much wrangling and argument, the governor grudgingly gave them a six-month extension and that was all Pizarro needed. In this time, Pizarro discovered the native city of Tumbes, which was a major trading city, even at that time. With undeniable proof of the riches of Peru, Pizarro tried for a third expedition, but was still rebuffed by the governor. He decided to go over his head to King Charles I of Spain. He was dazzled by Pizarro's tales of fabulous riches and quickly authorized the conquest of Peru.
In 1535, he landed on the coast of Ecuador and met up with fellow conquistador, Hernando de Soto and proceed to to Tumbes. The found the town a smoking ruin and all of the people dead. The locals blamed the Punians, a local warlike tribe Pizarro had tangled with before. With his plans of using Tumbes as a base shot, he moved inland and established the city of, San Miguel de Piura, one of the first European-established cities in South America,
de Soto left on various short expeditions to explore the immediate environs of San Miguel and soon brought back a representative of the famed Incan Empire He brought an offer to meet their Emperor, Atahualpa who was relaxing and recuperating in the hot springs at the city of Cajamarca after giving his brother a good shellacking in a civil war.
Pizarro left on the two-month journey to Cajamarca with about 170 men. Things didn't go that well with Atahualpa. For starters, Atahualpa wasn't buying that "We're gods!" routine for a second. He was content to let the common rabble believe it - after all, they thought he was a god too - but he wasn't going to. Secondly, he was fresh on the tails of a massive victory over his brother. Third, it was 80,000 of Atahualpa's men versus under 200 of Pizarro's. Atahualpa can be forgiven for being confident.
Pizarro, for his part, was in a bit of a pickle. He knew that a stand-up fight with Atahualpa was suicide. He also knew that he couldn't retreat without looking weak and inviting an attack. Furthermore, he couldn't just hang out because the more time spent fraternizing with the natives, the more they would come to the same conclusion that Atahualpa had: these guys were frauds. On top of that reinforcements were 2,000 miles away.
This standoff led to the Battle of (or Massacre at, if you like) Cajamarca. Pizarro invited Atathualpa into the walled city for a nice dinner and chat. For reasons unknown, Atahualpa left all of the 80,000 outside the city and only brought in his retinue. Once they reached the center of town, the signal was given and the Incas were attacked with cavalry charges, (which they had never seen) and massed gunfire (which they had never received). Atahualpa was captured and held for a ransom of one 22x17 room full of gold and two 22x17 rooms full of silver (nobody mentions how high the ceiling was). After the ransom was received, Pizarro had Atathualpa executed anyway.
Pizarro had led a couple of expeditions down the West coast of South American with differing levels of success. The first one was a failure: he only made it to Columbia (from Panama) and lost a ton of men to disease, hunger and hostile natives. The names given to ports along the way speak of the hard times: Porto del Hambre (Port of Hunger) and Porto Quemado (Burned Port).
The governor of Panama, Pedro Arias Davila, refused to authorize a second expedition, seeing Pizarro as a losing horse. But it was at that point that Davila decided to go exploring northwards in Honduras. His successor, Pedro de los Rios, gave Pizarro his support. It wasn't exactly full-throated support, but it was enough for Pizarro to get going.
Pizarro left Panama with a fleet of 160 ships headed south. They got to the San Juan River (at the modern boundary of Columbia and Bolivia) and split into three groups. Pizarro's group would head upriver to explore the interior. His second-in-command, Diego de Alamgro would head back to Panama for supplies and reinforcements. The chief pilot, Bartolomo Ruiz headed south to explore the coastline.
Ruiz had the best luck, at least from his point of view. He encountered, and subsequently robbed, a raft full of natives from the city of Tumbes. He relieved them of the burden of many yards of cloth, fine ceramics and, most especially, lots of gold and silver. Ruiz's eyes lit up at that and he turned around to meet up with Pizarro.
As it turns out, Pizarro had been having and extremely difficult time in the interior and was only too happy to break off that aspect of the expedition. At that point Alamgro got back with the supplies and troops.
Meanwhile, Governor de los Rios has been hearing all about Pizarro's disastrous first expedition and rumors about what was going on on the second. He decides to not only not authorize a third expedition, but to recall the second. He sent two ships to go get Pizarro.
This only stiffened Pizarros resolve, leading to an agry confrontation where he drew a line in the sand and gave his men the option of going home or staying with him, saying, "There lies Peru with its riches; Here, Panama and its poverty. Choose, each man, what best becomes a brave Castilian" Only thirteen men out of hundreds stayed with him. These were to become known as "The Famous Thirteen."
Pizarro sent Ruiz and Almagro back for provisions and to try and change de los Rios's mind, while Pizarro built a camp to wait it out. After much wrangling and argument, the governor grudgingly gave them a six-month extension and that was all Pizarro needed. In this time, Pizarro discovered the native city of Tumbes, which was a major trading city, even at that time. With undeniable proof of the riches of Peru, Pizarro tried for a third expedition, but was still rebuffed by the governor. He decided to go over his head to King Charles I of Spain. He was dazzled by Pizarro's tales of fabulous riches and quickly authorized the conquest of Peru.
In 1535, he landed on the coast of Ecuador and met up with fellow conquistador, Hernando de Soto and proceed to to Tumbes. The found the town a smoking ruin and all of the people dead. The locals blamed the Punians, a local warlike tribe Pizarro had tangled with before. With his plans of using Tumbes as a base shot, he moved inland and established the city of, San Miguel de Piura, one of the first European-established cities in South America,
de Soto left on various short expeditions to explore the immediate environs of San Miguel and soon brought back a representative of the famed Incan Empire He brought an offer to meet their Emperor, Atahualpa who was relaxing and recuperating in the hot springs at the city of Cajamarca after giving his brother a good shellacking in a civil war.
Pizarro left on the two-month journey to Cajamarca with about 170 men. Things didn't go that well with Atahualpa. For starters, Atahualpa wasn't buying that "We're gods!" routine for a second. He was content to let the common rabble believe it - after all, they thought he was a god too - but he wasn't going to. Secondly, he was fresh on the tails of a massive victory over his brother. Third, it was 80,000 of Atahualpa's men versus under 200 of Pizarro's. Atahualpa can be forgiven for being confident.
Pizarro, for his part, was in a bit of a pickle. He knew that a stand-up fight with Atahualpa was suicide. He also knew that he couldn't retreat without looking weak and inviting an attack. Furthermore, he couldn't just hang out because the more time spent fraternizing with the natives, the more they would come to the same conclusion that Atahualpa had: these guys were frauds. On top of that reinforcements were 2,000 miles away.
This standoff led to the Battle of (or Massacre at, if you like) Cajamarca. Pizarro invited Atathualpa into the walled city for a nice dinner and chat. For reasons unknown, Atahualpa left all of the 80,000 outside the city and only brought in his retinue. Once they reached the center of town, the signal was given and the Incas were attacked with cavalry charges, (which they had never seen) and massed gunfire (which they had never received). Atahualpa was captured and held for a ransom of one 22x17 room full of gold and two 22x17 rooms full of silver (nobody mentions how high the ceiling was). After the ransom was received, Pizarro had Atathualpa executed anyway.
Saturday, January 17, 2009
History Spotlight, 1/17
One of the largest armed robberies in United States history, the Great Brink's Robbery took place today in 1950 in Boston.
It all started with Tony "Fats" Pino, a local burglar and low-level mafioso. After Brink's moved its vault to a new location in 1948, Tony began to quietly study the routes of the armored cars and the daily routines of the business. Pino realized from his studies that the famed Brink's reputation was just a facade. He move from observation to actively casing their Boston office. He would actually break in at night and study the procedures from the inside.
By now, Tony was no longer thinking small. A place this wide open was just asking to be hit and hit hard. During these almost-nightly recon missions, Tony and two associates, Joey "Specs" O'Keefe and Stan "Gus" Gusciora broke into the Brinks office and made duplicate keys for nearly all the locked doors in the building. He began to assemble a team of crooks of different skills to assist him in his big score.
At 6:55 PM on January 17, 1950, seven robbers, wearing Brinks uniforms, dark Navy pea coats and Halloween masks, entered the Brink's office. Using their forged keys, the robbers surprised five brinks employees on the second floor, bound and gagged them and started scooping up cash.
By 7:30 PM they left the building and went to a safe place to divide the cash. Each man got his cut and agreed to not spend any of the money for six years, at which time the statute of limitations would have run out.
At first, there were almost no clues. While Brink offered a $100,000 reward for information leading to arrest, all the cops could find was a length of rope used to bind the guards and a chauffeur's cap. Later on, several pieces of the getaway truck were found in a salvage yard in Stoughton, MA.
And that's about all there was in the way of leads for several months. The cops leaned on "all the usual suspects" for information, but nobody knew anything. It wasn't until June, when O'Keefe and Gusciora were picked up on a burglary charge in Pennsylvania that things began to unravel. With O'Keefe looking at at least 3 years and Gusciora looking at anything from 5 to twenty years, all that money began to look handy for a legal defense. Via an informer, the cops learned that O'Keefe and Gusciora had demanded money from from Tony Pino to hire a lawyer.
O'Keefe was in such a need for money that, after he was released on bail, he kidnapped another one of the robbers (Vincent Costa, who was also Tony Pino's brother-in-law) and held him for ransom. Pino paid a little ransom money, but soon decided that O'Keefe needed to be dealt with. He hired a hitman, Elmer "Trigger" Burke to kill O'Keefe, but Elmer only managed to seriously wound O'Keefe. It was while O'Keefe was in the hospital that the FBI approached him and pointed out that his friends weren't very friendly and maybe he should find a new class of friends. O'Keefe agreed to talk.
At the trial, eight of the gang members received life sentences and O'Keefe got four years - more time than he would have gotten had he just done his time from the Pennsylvania robbery. Of the $2.7 million, only $58,000 was ever recovered. The rest is rumored to be hidden in the hills north of Grand Rapids, MN.
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It all started with Tony "Fats" Pino, a local burglar and low-level mafioso. After Brink's moved its vault to a new location in 1948, Tony began to quietly study the routes of the armored cars and the daily routines of the business. Pino realized from his studies that the famed Brink's reputation was just a facade. He move from observation to actively casing their Boston office. He would actually break in at night and study the procedures from the inside.
By now, Tony was no longer thinking small. A place this wide open was just asking to be hit and hit hard. During these almost-nightly recon missions, Tony and two associates, Joey "Specs" O'Keefe and Stan "Gus" Gusciora broke into the Brinks office and made duplicate keys for nearly all the locked doors in the building. He began to assemble a team of crooks of different skills to assist him in his big score.
At 6:55 PM on January 17, 1950, seven robbers, wearing Brinks uniforms, dark Navy pea coats and Halloween masks, entered the Brink's office. Using their forged keys, the robbers surprised five brinks employees on the second floor, bound and gagged them and started scooping up cash.
By 7:30 PM they left the building and went to a safe place to divide the cash. Each man got his cut and agreed to not spend any of the money for six years, at which time the statute of limitations would have run out.
At first, there were almost no clues. While Brink offered a $100,000 reward for information leading to arrest, all the cops could find was a length of rope used to bind the guards and a chauffeur's cap. Later on, several pieces of the getaway truck were found in a salvage yard in Stoughton, MA.
And that's about all there was in the way of leads for several months. The cops leaned on "all the usual suspects" for information, but nobody knew anything. It wasn't until June, when O'Keefe and Gusciora were picked up on a burglary charge in Pennsylvania that things began to unravel. With O'Keefe looking at at least 3 years and Gusciora looking at anything from 5 to twenty years, all that money began to look handy for a legal defense. Via an informer, the cops learned that O'Keefe and Gusciora had demanded money from from Tony Pino to hire a lawyer.
O'Keefe was in such a need for money that, after he was released on bail, he kidnapped another one of the robbers (Vincent Costa, who was also Tony Pino's brother-in-law) and held him for ransom. Pino paid a little ransom money, but soon decided that O'Keefe needed to be dealt with. He hired a hitman, Elmer "Trigger" Burke to kill O'Keefe, but Elmer only managed to seriously wound O'Keefe. It was while O'Keefe was in the hospital that the FBI approached him and pointed out that his friends weren't very friendly and maybe he should find a new class of friends. O'Keefe agreed to talk.
At the trial, eight of the gang members received life sentences and O'Keefe got four years - more time than he would have gotten had he just done his time from the Pennsylvania robbery. Of the $2.7 million, only $58,000 was ever recovered. The rest is rumored to be hidden in the hills north of Grand Rapids, MN.
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Friday, January 16, 2009
History Spotlight, 1/16
On this day, in 1707, the Scottish Parliament ratifies the Act of Union, paving the way for the creation of Great Britain. Union between England and Scotland had been tried before. Edward I tried it by force during the Scottish wars in the 1290's. It didn't take. When James VI of Scotland assumed the English throne on the death of his aunt Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, he said that he wanted to be known as the King of Great Britain, rather than the somewhat wordy "King James I of England and VI of Scotland." This didn't take, either. The English parliament was concerned that James would want to run the country in the authoritarian manner that he had run Scotland and the Scots were worried that James was going to "go native" and wind up as just another English oppressor. When James got distracted by other matters, most people just breathed a sigh of relief and let the issue drop.
Later on, during the Commonwealth (this is after the English Civil War, in which the Scots supported the losing side), Oliver Cromwell conquered Scotland and created the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. It lasted until Cromwell died and the Stuart line was restored.
Scotland, however, was playing a game of "Keeping up with England" that it was destined to fail. England had always been a trading powerhouse and Scotland wanted a slice of that sweet moneycake by setting up their own trading outpost in the New World. The place the selected was the peninsula of Darien in Panama. The first big problem with this was that Spain owned Panama and didn't like the Scots horning in on their action. The second, even bigger problem, is that the guy they got their intel from on Darien was a drunk and a swindle and probably had never been there.
He told the Scots that Darien was a paradise on Earth (in reality it was a malarial swamp) and that the natives were friendly and peaceable (they were about as friendly as you would imagine natives who had been getting kicked around by the Spanish for 200 years might be).
Scotland raised the funds for the first expedition and sent a thousand hopeful Scots to Panama, armed with Bibles and combs (they had been told the natives loved to comb their hair). Some months later, when the second wave of settlers came through, all they found was graves. What malaria, dysentery and starvation didn't do, the natives took care of.
As it turns out, England, ever ruthless had been actively sabotaging the project from the start. England didn't want Scotland as a trading rival - they didn't want Scotland as a rival for anything. And when Spain asked England to do something about those pesky Scots in Darien, they were only too happy to oblige. The English Parliament passed laws forbidding any English person or company from investing in the Darien scheme. As Scotland had already invested almost all of its money on this, the much hoped-for infusion of English cash was cut off.
With the failure of the Darien scheme, the Scots were out something like 500,000 pounds - almost two-thirds of their national revenue. At that point, England made them an offer they couldn't refuse. England would give Scotland equal access to English ports and trade and pay off Scotland's debts (called "The Equivalent) if only Scotland would sign one little piece of paper. That paper, the Act of Union would basically cause Scotland to cease to exist as an independent country. There would be no Scottish parliament (there would be a Parliament of Great Britain, but that would be in London) and no Scottish monarchs. Many Scots saw it (and still do) as the deal with the Devil and it was on this day in 1707 the Scotland signed in blood.
Later on, during the Commonwealth (this is after the English Civil War, in which the Scots supported the losing side), Oliver Cromwell conquered Scotland and created the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. It lasted until Cromwell died and the Stuart line was restored.
Scotland, however, was playing a game of "Keeping up with England" that it was destined to fail. England had always been a trading powerhouse and Scotland wanted a slice of that sweet moneycake by setting up their own trading outpost in the New World. The place the selected was the peninsula of Darien in Panama. The first big problem with this was that Spain owned Panama and didn't like the Scots horning in on their action. The second, even bigger problem, is that the guy they got their intel from on Darien was a drunk and a swindle and probably had never been there.
He told the Scots that Darien was a paradise on Earth (in reality it was a malarial swamp) and that the natives were friendly and peaceable (they were about as friendly as you would imagine natives who had been getting kicked around by the Spanish for 200 years might be).
Scotland raised the funds for the first expedition and sent a thousand hopeful Scots to Panama, armed with Bibles and combs (they had been told the natives loved to comb their hair). Some months later, when the second wave of settlers came through, all they found was graves. What malaria, dysentery and starvation didn't do, the natives took care of.
As it turns out, England, ever ruthless had been actively sabotaging the project from the start. England didn't want Scotland as a trading rival - they didn't want Scotland as a rival for anything. And when Spain asked England to do something about those pesky Scots in Darien, they were only too happy to oblige. The English Parliament passed laws forbidding any English person or company from investing in the Darien scheme. As Scotland had already invested almost all of its money on this, the much hoped-for infusion of English cash was cut off.
With the failure of the Darien scheme, the Scots were out something like 500,000 pounds - almost two-thirds of their national revenue. At that point, England made them an offer they couldn't refuse. England would give Scotland equal access to English ports and trade and pay off Scotland's debts (called "The Equivalent) if only Scotland would sign one little piece of paper. That paper, the Act of Union would basically cause Scotland to cease to exist as an independent country. There would be no Scottish parliament (there would be a Parliament of Great Britain, but that would be in London) and no Scottish monarchs. Many Scots saw it (and still do) as the deal with the Devil and it was on this day in 1707 the Scotland signed in blood.
Thursday, January 15, 2009
History Spotloght, 1/15
It was on this day in 1559, that Queen Elizabeth I was crowned in Westminster Abbey. But who cares about her, it's also the 89th anniversary of the Great Boston Molasses Flood.
Like most disasters, several factors combined to create it. For starters, the tank owned by the Purity Distilling Company at 529 Commercial Street in the North End, was poorly constructed and insufficiently tested. Basic saftey checks, such as filling the tank with water to check for leaks, were bypassed. The tank's molasses leaks were dealt with by painting the tank brown (so the leaks didn't show). In fact, it leaked so badly that neighborhood residents would stop by with a container and help themselves. Not helping matters any was a warm front that passed through the evening before raising temperatures from 2 degrees to 41 degrees, which started the fermentation process in the tank, which created carbon dioxide, which further increased the pressure on an already shaky structure. The tank itself was massive: 50 feet tall, 90 feet in diameter and holding over 2 million gallons of molasses.
At 40 minutes past noon on on January 15, 1919 neighborhood residents heard a rattling sound like a machine gun as the rivets popped, followed by a low rumbling sound, similar to a train passing by. As the tank burst, a massive wave of molasses 15 feet high and moving at 35 mph was unleashed upon the neighborhood. The wave moved with such force that girders of a nearby elevated train were broken and cars were strewn about like toys. A fire station just east of the tank was moved off its foundation and other buildings were completely demolished. 21 were killed and 150 were injured.
As the wave subsided, several blocks were left inundated in molasses at a depth of about 3 feet. People, horses and dogs struggled to get to their feet in the sticky mess and breathe while their lungs were clogged with molasses. The force of air ahead of the wave picked up a truck and tossed it into Boston Harbor.
The first responders wer 116 sailors from the nearby USS Nantucket who waded into the soup to pull out survivors. In the meantime, the Red Cross arrived and set up aid station to tend the wounded and keep people warm. After four days, the search for survivors was called off.
In the end, the cleanup took 87,000 man hours and Boston Harbor was brown (well, brown-er) until summer. The United States Industrial Alcohol Company, owner of Purity Distilling originally tried to blame a bomb planted by anarchists, but nobody was buying that. After three years of trials, USIA was found liable to the tune of $600,000 (about $6.6 million in today's dollars)
A plaque at the site reads:
Like most disasters, several factors combined to create it. For starters, the tank owned by the Purity Distilling Company at 529 Commercial Street in the North End, was poorly constructed and insufficiently tested. Basic saftey checks, such as filling the tank with water to check for leaks, were bypassed. The tank's molasses leaks were dealt with by painting the tank brown (so the leaks didn't show). In fact, it leaked so badly that neighborhood residents would stop by with a container and help themselves. Not helping matters any was a warm front that passed through the evening before raising temperatures from 2 degrees to 41 degrees, which started the fermentation process in the tank, which created carbon dioxide, which further increased the pressure on an already shaky structure. The tank itself was massive: 50 feet tall, 90 feet in diameter and holding over 2 million gallons of molasses.
At 40 minutes past noon on on January 15, 1919 neighborhood residents heard a rattling sound like a machine gun as the rivets popped, followed by a low rumbling sound, similar to a train passing by. As the tank burst, a massive wave of molasses 15 feet high and moving at 35 mph was unleashed upon the neighborhood. The wave moved with such force that girders of a nearby elevated train were broken and cars were strewn about like toys. A fire station just east of the tank was moved off its foundation and other buildings were completely demolished. 21 were killed and 150 were injured.
As the wave subsided, several blocks were left inundated in molasses at a depth of about 3 feet. People, horses and dogs struggled to get to their feet in the sticky mess and breathe while their lungs were clogged with molasses. The force of air ahead of the wave picked up a truck and tossed it into Boston Harbor.
The first responders wer 116 sailors from the nearby USS Nantucket who waded into the soup to pull out survivors. In the meantime, the Red Cross arrived and set up aid station to tend the wounded and keep people warm. After four days, the search for survivors was called off.
In the end, the cleanup took 87,000 man hours and Boston Harbor was brown (well, brown-er) until summer. The United States Industrial Alcohol Company, owner of Purity Distilling originally tried to blame a bomb planted by anarchists, but nobody was buying that. After three years of trials, USIA was found liable to the tune of $600,000 (about $6.6 million in today's dollars)
A plaque at the site reads:
On January 15, 1919, a molasses tank at 529 Commercial Street exploded under pressure, killing 21 people. A 40-foot wave of molasses buckled the elevated railroad tracks, crushed buildings and inundated the neighborhood. Structural defects in the tank combined with unseasonably warm temperatures contributed to the disaster.Neighborhood residents say that, on hot summer nights, you can still smell molasses in the air.
Wednesday, January 14, 2009
History Spotlight, 1/14
The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, is ratified by the United States on this day in 1784 officially ending the American Revolution. The signers were Ben Franklin, John Adams and John Jay, for the US, and Member of Parliament David Hartley for King George III. Other belligerents in the war (France, the Netherlands, and Spain) got their own treaties later on.
The ten main points of the treaty are:
1) All 13 colonies are free and sovereign and the King lets go of all claims to them.
2) Establishing the boundaries between the United States and British North America (that's Canada to you and me). The map made by John Mitchell (a whopping 6.5 feet by 4.5 feet) used to determing the border contained numerous inaccuracies which would cause no end of mischief. For example, the Northwest Angle, that little bit of Minnesota on the northern side of Lake of the Woods is completely isolated from the rest of the continental United States. This is because the the Treaty of Paris said that the border ran from the Lake of the Woods due west to the Mississippi, but the Mississippi is much farther south than that. Another area was the Republic of Indian Stream, that little piece of New Hampshire that sticks up into Canada.
3) Fishing rights to US fishermen in the Grand Banks, off the coast of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of St Lawrence.
4) Recognizing the the validity of debts on either side.
5) Giving back confiscated Loyalist lands to their rightful owners. Many states wound up ignoring this one.
6) Preventing future confiscation of property owned by Loyalists.
7) Prisoners of war on both sides to be released.
8) Great Britain and America to have equal access to the Mississippi River.
9) Land captured by the US outside of the provisions of the treaty are to be returned without compensation.
10) Ratification to occur within six months.
In addition to, this Britain gave Spain back Florida (which was East and West Florida at the time) Unfortunately, nobody knew exactly where the northern border of Florida was, which would cause no end of trouble when Andrew Jackson was riding around down there during the Creek War. Also causing problems in Florida is the fact that Spain didn't sign any treaty allowing the Americans access to the Missippi and used their position in Florida to make a general nuisance of themselves.
The ten main points of the treaty are:
1) All 13 colonies are free and sovereign and the King lets go of all claims to them.
2) Establishing the boundaries between the United States and British North America (that's Canada to you and me). The map made by John Mitchell (a whopping 6.5 feet by 4.5 feet) used to determing the border contained numerous inaccuracies which would cause no end of mischief. For example, the Northwest Angle, that little bit of Minnesota on the northern side of Lake of the Woods is completely isolated from the rest of the continental United States. This is because the the Treaty of Paris said that the border ran from the Lake of the Woods due west to the Mississippi, but the Mississippi is much farther south than that. Another area was the Republic of Indian Stream, that little piece of New Hampshire that sticks up into Canada.
3) Fishing rights to US fishermen in the Grand Banks, off the coast of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of St Lawrence.
4) Recognizing the the validity of debts on either side.
5) Giving back confiscated Loyalist lands to their rightful owners. Many states wound up ignoring this one.
6) Preventing future confiscation of property owned by Loyalists.
7) Prisoners of war on both sides to be released.
8) Great Britain and America to have equal access to the Mississippi River.
9) Land captured by the US outside of the provisions of the treaty are to be returned without compensation.
10) Ratification to occur within six months.
In addition to, this Britain gave Spain back Florida (which was East and West Florida at the time) Unfortunately, nobody knew exactly where the northern border of Florida was, which would cause no end of trouble when Andrew Jackson was riding around down there during the Creek War. Also causing problems in Florida is the fact that Spain didn't sign any treaty allowing the Americans access to the Missippi and used their position in Florida to make a general nuisance of themselves.
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